Macrauchenia patachonica was among the largest litopterns. It had a long neck with elongated cervical vertebrae, unique among endemic South American ungulates. We calculated the pattern of stress in the joints between the vertebral centra along the neck of the recently-extinct litoptern mammal M. patachonica for various hypothetical neck postures to determine which one is optimal. We also determined the zygapophyseal alignment positions for the neck, assuming a wide range of values for the thickness of the intervertebral discs. We concluded that a vertical posture is the one that best meets the requirements of nearly constant stress. This upright posture was probably a frequently adopted posture by M. patachonica while feeding or standing. It is also possible that occasionally it could adopt a gerenuk-like posture. In almost any other position, the standard deviations of stress values (SD) divided by mean stress (MS) have values between 0.4 and 0.5. Since it was a mixed feeder, M. patachonica probably used different postures to reach resources at different heights. However, an almost horizontal posture was required for the optimal articulation of the neck vertebrae. It probably represents the posture during fast locomotion, as suggested in a previous biomechanical study of locomotion. 

An isolated right costal 1 from the Late Cretaceous Massecaps locality (Cruzy, Hérault, southern France) is assigned to Dortoka vasconica (Dortokidae). This find adds a new element to the Late Cretaceous turtle fauna of Cruzy and further supports the hypothesis that two distinct lineages of Dortokidae were present in Europe during the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene due to geographical isolation.
  

The study of endocasts, or casts of the endocranial space, have played an important role in shaping understanding of mammalian, and particularly primate, brain evolution. Recently, the reconstructions of three-dimensional virtual endocasts from high-resolution computed tomography images have allowed for the visualization and quantification of endocasts in several Paleocene and Eocene primate species. Here we present the virtual endocast of MaPhQ 289 (informally known as the Montauban 9 skull), a specimen of Necrolemur antiquus Filhol 1873, a middle to late Eocene European primate of the family Microchoeridae. The virtual endocast of MaPhQ 289 reveals a lissencephalic surface morphology with expanded temporal poles and minimal overlap of the cerebellum or olfactory bulb by the cerebrum, which closely resembles the morphology of the endocast of its contemporary relative, Microchoerus erinaceus (Primates, Microchoeridae). MaPhQ 289 yields an endocranial volume (ECV) of 2.36 cm3, about 60% smaller than the volume of the most commonly cited ECV of N. antiquus. Thus, the size of the brain of N. antiquus relative to its body size is likely to be smaller than has been reported in previous literature, highlighting the importance of corroborating older ECV estimates with new evidence using 3-D imaging techniques. 

The discovery of new hippopotamid material from the late Miocene Baynunah Formation (Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates) has prompted the revision of the existing material of this as yet unnamed fossil taxon. The Baynunah hippopotamid appears to be distinct from all other contemporary and later species in having a relatively more elongate symphysis, a feature similar to the earlier (and more primitive) Kenyapotamus. Yet, the Baynunah hippopotamid presents a dentition typical of the Hippopotaminae. It is therefore a distinct species attributed to the later subfamily, described and named in this contribution. This species provides further evidence for a ca. 8 Ma evolutionary event (termed “Hippopotamine Event”) that initiated the spread and ecological significance of the Hippopotaminae into wet habitats across Africa and Eurasia. The morphological affinities of the new species from Abu Dhabi suggest that the Arabian Peninsula was not a dispersal route from Africa toward southern Asia for the Hippopotamidae at ca. 7.5 Ma to 6.5 Ma. 

Suite à la récente publication d'une révision systématique des Chiroptera Vespertilioninae, conduite sur la base des morphologies dentaires comparées (Menu 1987), une remarque bienveillante du Dr. V. Aellen (Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève) a attiré l'attention de l'auteur sur un point précis du Code International de Nomenclature Zoologique. 

The family Didelphidae is represented by three species in the Sainte-Néboule site, phosphorites of Quercy (lower Oligocene, San Cugat's nivel): Amphiperatherium minutum (Aymard), Amphiperatherium sp. and Peratherium cuvieri (Fischer). Only the first  and  third species are abundant (88 and 97 pieces). This two populations are described. The marsupial fauna of the european lower Oligocene is not recognized in its entirety in this site. 

The study of another faunal assemblage (mostly macromammals) from Torralba de Ribota (Calatayud, Zara-
goza Prov.) demonstrates the Middle "Burdigalian" age of the deposit, MEIN zone 4a. Some ten genera have been recognized. a.o. Anchitherium, Aceratherium and Lagopsis. 

Remarkable association of a small infraorbital foramen, similar to that in recent Heterocephalus, and of a strong muscular print on the dorsal anterior part of the zygomatic plate and on the premaxillary. Several anatomical structures to be compared with those of Heterocephalus suggest relationships with this genus. Richardus supports the ancestrality of the hystricomorph character in the bathyergids 

Equus caballus antunesi, nova subspecies, was a hypsodont, slender, and rather small horse (around 141cm at the withers), with narrow hooves and protocones longer on P3/-P4/ than on M1/-M2/. It does not fit in any of the different "types" of Pleistocene caballine horses previously recognized but may be related to the horse from the Acheulean of Solana del Zamborino.
Hypsodonty, small size, slenderness, narrow hooves are all characters that can easily be related to ecological conditions. Equus caballus antunesi was probably a horse adapted to rather dry and cold conditions and to a hard ground. It does not seem related at all to the North-European Equus caballus germanicus-gallicus group. 

New faunal and stratigraphical data on the vertebrates localities from the early Paleogene of the Ouarzazate Basin (Adrar Mgorn 1, Adrar Mgorn 1 bis et N'Tagourt 2), Morocco, are presented. A magnetostratigraphical study, the first for such early Paleogene Arabo-African mammal localities, and the discovery of probable remains of the nannofossil Discoaster support the Thanetian age of the Adrar Mgorn 1 site. The magnetostratigraphy suggests a slightly later age than was thought for the Paleogene formations of the local series of Tinerhir and for the vertebrate localities: late or latest Thanetian for Adrar Mgorn 1 and Adrar Mgorn 1 bis, middle Ypresian for N'Tagourt 2. It also indicates a lower position of the KT boundary in the series. Two tons of matrix recovered in the vertebrate sites have vielded new data on the micromammals. A damaged lower molar from N'Tagourt 2 is referable to Khamsaconus bulbosus  and supports the proboscidean affinities of this species and especially possible relationships with bunolophodont taxa such as elephantiforms. A lower molar from Adrar Mgorn 1 bis belongs to a new form which can be identified as a plesiadapiform or an euprimate close to Altiatlasius koulchii though significantly larger. A new material from Adrar Mgorn 1 illustrates a new dilambdodont adapisoriculid species which is referable to Garatherium : ?Garatherium todrae n. sp. Another species referred to Garatherium is known in the locality (?Garatherium n. sp.). Garatherium is a new lineage from the Ouarzazate basin which crosses the Paleocene-Eocene boundary together with Palaeoryctes, Didelphodontinae gen. and sp. 2, Todralestes, and Afrodon, and it is the first Paleocene-Eocene lineage identified outside of this basin (Garatheríum is based on a species from El Kohol, Algeria). Among the Paleocene-Eocene lineages from the Ouarzazate basin, it should be also mentioned a new possible carnassial form (carnivoran or creodont; Adrar Mgorn 1), and an upper molar of Cimolestes cf. incisus (Adrar Mgorn 1 bis). The upper molar THR 168 previously reported as from an indeterminate didelphodontine is here identified as the M1/ of Afrodon chleuhi. The micromammal faunas from the Ouarzazate basin are positioned in the global chronological framework of the mammal localities from the Paleogene of the Arabo-African domain. 

A new European rodent from the middle Eocene of Spain, Zamoramys extraneus n. gen., n. sp., appears to be closely related to the middle Eocene chapattimyid rodents of Indo-Pakistan. This contradicts the generally accepted paleobiogeographic hypothesis of a Tethyian barrier between Europe and Asia isolating Europe during the middle Eocene. Because of this barrier, some authors have proposed that European and Asian rodents were not closely related, their similarity being the result of morphological convergence. Here monophyly has been tested, using the parsimony criterion, based on an analysis of dental characters (including discussing of homology and the validity of some characteristics). Our results indicate a phylogenetic relationship among the Asiatic Ctenodactyloidea, Zamoramys from Spain, and the European endemic Theridomyoidea. We also conclude from our analysis that theridomyoids and European ischyromyoids are probably not closely related phylogenetically. 

Of the ten cricetid species from the Oligocene of Western Europe, attributed until now to the genus Eucricetodon, only four prove to be utilizable - E. atavus, E. huberi, E. praecursor, E. collatum - to which it is possible to add two forms newly described: E. huerzeleri and E. quercyi. The evolullon of the genus Pseudocricetodon is also the subject of new observations. The study of the dental morphology allows us to distinguish in these two genera three lineages beginning in the middle Oligocene:

- Lineage P. montalbenensis-P. thaleri (from Montalban to Goderet), of small size, without
increase in size.
- LineageE. atavus-E. infralactorensis (from Hoogbulsel to Estrepouy), of middle size, with a regular increase in size.
- Lineage E. huerzeleri-E. haslachense (level of Montalban to that of Estrepouy), of large size, with an increase in size.

Two other forms are equally represented in these loealitles: Heterocricetodon aff. helbengi and Melissiodon quercyi. It has been possible to attribute a precise age (zone of "Cournon") to the last species, which has been defined by Schaub (l925) from material in the Old Quercy collections. The genera Pseudocricetodon, Eucricetodon, ? "Cricetodon", Leydimys, Eumys, differentiated at the beginning of the middle Oligocene in Europe, Asia and North America, seem to derive from a common ancestral group. The place of origin of this group could be situated in Asia. 

La faune de Rongeurs d'Escamps (Lot) bien que relativement pauvre en espèces (dix) s'avère riche d'enseignement pour les Rongeurs de l'Oligocène inférieur d'Europe Occidentale. Cette periode semble caracterisée par une cladogenèse des Théridomyines. A Escamps, un nouveau genre (Patriotheridomys) est décrit ainsi qu'une nouvelle espèce de Theridomys. Avec Oltmamys platyceps, décrit ici plus complètement et désormais bien situé stratigraphiquement, les deux espèces précédentes constituent un ensemble original du Sud de la France. A la même époque, en Angleterre, Allemagne et Espagne, des espèces «régionales» de Théridomyinés se dersifient.  A côté de ces formes qui ne semblent pas franchir la «Grande Coupure» sont représentées deux lignées d'Issiodoromyinés (Elfomys sp et Pseudoltmomys cuvieri), une de Théridomyiné (T. (Blainvillimys) rotundidens) ainsi qu'un Gliridé, Gliravus priscus (que l'on différencie nettement de la deuxième lignée des Gliravus oligocènes : G.  meridionalis -> G. majori). On retrouve ces formes dans les gisements plus récents du niveau de Hoogbutsel où elles sont à peine plus évoluées. Le fait que les degrés évolutifs de ces lignées soient très proches laisse supposer que le laps de temps séparant les niveaux d'Ecamps et Hoogbutsel fut relativement court. 

The entelodonts of the Quercy phosphorites are essentially known from isolated teeth. The skull remains attributed to Entelodon magnum by Kowalewsky in 1876 and the type left mandible of Enteladon depereti RÉPELIN, 1918 do not belong to this family. From a morphologic point of view, the teeth from Quercy are quite comparable to those from the type localities of E. magnum and E. deguilhemi. In the absence of distinctive anatomical criteria between E. magnum (small species from the level of Ronzon) and E. deguilhemi (large species from the level of Villebramar) they are referred, according to their size, to one or the other of these two species. However, some of them are intermediate in size. Their existence speaks in favor of a close relationship between E. magnum and E. deguilhemi and confers a real stratigraphic interest to these entelodonts of Western Europe. Finally, some anatomical characters (notch on the mesial border of P4, presence of a paraconid joined to the metaconid, trigonid higher than talonid) considered until now as peculiar to the North American Archaeotherium and not yet cited in its European contemporary Entelodon have been brought to light on the teeth from Quercy.

  

We report the discovery of amniotic eggshells and theropod teeth from the Late Cretaccous  period in Morocco.The megaloolithid family represents the only known dinosaur egg remains in the north part of Africa and attests indirectly to the occurrence of sauropod dinosaurs (titanosaurids) in the Maastrichtian of Africa.

  

Simpson (1937a) reconstructed the brain of the Paleocene multituberculate Ptilodus as having the olfactory bulbs widest anteriorly, an unusual condition among mammals. Slight preparation and reexamination of the endocast specimens of Ptilodus reveals that the olfactory bulbs in fact taper anteriorly, as in the recently-described endocranial casts of three multituberculate species from the Late Cretaceous of Asia, and as in those of other mammals. The brain of Ptilodus was therefore essentially of the same general pattem as in other multituberculates. Ptilodus differs, however, in having the vermis more deeply inserted between the cerebral hemispheres. Other details concerning the endocast morphology of Ptilodus are clarified.

The encephalization quotient (EQ) of Ptilodus is recalculated from revised estimates of both endocranial volume and body mass to fall somewhere within a broad range of values; from 0.41 to 0.62 if the olfactory bulbs are included and from 0.37 to 0.55 if they are not. In any case, the relative brain size of Ptilodus is roughly equivalent to that of Chulsanbaatar, the only other multituberculate for which EQ has been calculated, but considerably smaller than that of an average extant mammnal. 

Near "la Lieude", in the Lodève basin, more than a thousand of footprints are distributed in a twenty of trackways which amounts to 220 m length. They have been found on calcareous siltstone level in the B site named also "Réserve Naturelle Volontaire". This last is located in the Saxonian summit dated Upper Permian. "La Lieude" tracks are described by using statistical methods then they are compared with others from the world Permian. What allows to distinguish 4 following ichnotaxa: Lunaepes ollierorum nov.ichnosp., Merifontichnus thalerius nov. ichnogen. and nov. ichnosp., Planipes brachydactylus nov.ichnosp. and Brontopus circagiganteus nov. ichnosp. All these traces are attributed with possibility or probability to Therapsida or to Therosauria, except Brontopus circagiganteus nov. ichnosp. that could be due to Caseamorpha. All these animals whose sizes have been estimated between l and 5 m lived probably in a playa environment.The biological and sedimentological data from "la Lieude" footprints levels compared with informations provided by the tracks orientations, suggest the following scenario. Animals coming from the North have crossed a sandy channel bank with plants zones by directing to the South for the majority. Maybe, they were going to the lacustrine part of the playa, close to "la Lieude" footprints that they have just trampled on. 

A reconstruction of a multituberculate endocranial cast is made on the basis of a complete natural cast prepared from the skull of Chulsanbaatar vulgaris, and other less complete endocasts, all from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. The multituberculate endocast is of mammalian pattern but it has retained a therapsid-like lateral profile with a deep rhombencephalon and a shallow telencephalon. It is characterized by: a heart-shaped cross-section of the telencephalon; an extensive lissencephalic neocortex; a very prominent pons placed far anteriorly; a lack of cerebellar hemispheres, and very large paraflocculi. Its structure, very different from the brains of other mammals, suggests thats the Multituberculata branched very early from the main mammalian stock. This supports Simpson's (1945) idea that the Multituberculata should be placed in a subclass of their own: Allotheria MARSH. The endocast and braincase structure show that the Multituberculata had strongly developed senses of smell and hearing. The encephalization quotient of approx. 0.55 evaluated for Ch. vulgaris is relatively high for a Mesozoic mammal. 

The rodents from the spanish locality of Can Ponsic 1 bring new data about some rodents species of the beginning of the Upper Miocene in South-West Europe. The criticims made by Mein and Freudenthal about the validity of the species Hispanomys thaleri from Can Llobateres are not justiíied. The study of the anatomy of the skull of Rotundomys from Can Ponsic 1 gives accurate information about the affinity of this genus with Cricetulus, and shows that the hypothesis, according to which Rotundomys is an ancestral form of the Arvicolids, is unlikely. The systematics of Heteroxerus and the phylogeny of the mio-pliocene Muscardinus species are also discussed. The Can Ponsic 1 locality is a little older than Can Llobateres.

  

Micro-CT imaging is an increasingly popular method in paleontology giving access to internal structures with a high resolution and without destroying precious specimens. However, its potential for the study of hypoplasia defects has only recently been investigated. Here, we propose a preliminary study to test whether hypoplastic defects can be detected with micro-CT (μCT) scan and we assess the costs and benefits of using this method instead of naked eye. To do so, we studied 13 fossil rhinocerotid teeth bearing hypoplasia from Béon 1 (late early Miocene, Southwestern France) as positive control and 11 teeth of the amynodontid Cadurcotherium (Oligocene, Phosphorites du Quercy, Southwestern France), for which enamel was partly or totally obscured by cement. We showed that all macroscopically-spotted defects were retrieved on 3D reconstructions and selected virtual slices. We also detected additional defects using μCT scan compared to naked eye identification. The number of defects detected using μCT was greater in the Cadurcotherium dataset (paired-sample Wilcoxon test, p-value = 0.02724) but not for our control sample (paired-sample Wilcoxon test, p-value = 0.1171). Moreover, it allowed for measuring width and depth of the defects on virtual slices (sometimes linked to stress duration and severity, respectively), which we could not do macroscopically. As μCT imaging is both expensive and time consuming while not drastically improving the results, we recommend a moderate and thoughtful use of this method for hypoplasia investigations, restricted for instance to teeth for which enamel surface is obscured (presence of cement, uncomplete preparation, or unerupted germs).